• E4J University Module Series: Wildlife Crime

• Module 1: Illicit Markets for Wildlife, Forest and Fisheries Products

• Introduction and learning outcomes

• Key issues

• • Demand and consumption
  • Data
  • Supply and demand
  • Implications of wildlife trafficking
  • Legal and illegal markets
  • Perpetrators and their networks
  • Locations and activities relating to wildlife trafficking
  • References

• Exercises

• Possible class structure

• Core reading

• Advanced reading

• Student assessment

• Additional teaching tools

 

Published in September 2019 

Regional Perspective: Eastern and Southern Africa - added in April 2020

 

 

  This module is a resource for lecturers  

 

Demand and consumption

 

Wildlife trafficking is, for the most part, driven by demand. It involves animal parts, products, and derivatives, as well as trees, plants, timber, and plant products that are sought for a range of diverse purposes. To understand the illicit market for wildlife, animal parts, and plants it is necessary to explore what is driving the demand. Types of demand and levels of consumption change over time, sometimes rapidly, as uses and commodities come in and out of fashion. Much of the demand involves luxury goods such that consumption is driven by choice rather than necessity. The following section outlines the consumption and use of living animals, animal parts and derivatives, trees and timber, plants and plant products insofar as it impacts on endangered species or involves illegal use.

 

Medicinal use and healthcare

The use of animal parts, plants, or compounds extracted from them is commonplace around the world, ranging from herbal remedies to ingredients of industrial pharmaceuticals. Traditional medicines, upon which about 80 per cent of the world population relies for primary healthcare, frequently involve components derived from wild animal or plant species. It is estimated that 95 per cent of traditional medicines are based on plant material (Broad et al, 2012). Animals and animal parts used for medicinal purposes range from medicinal leeches (used to increase blood circulation and break up blood clots) to the gall bladders of pythons (the bile of which is used to treat ailments such as whooping cough, rheumatic pain, high fever, infantile convulsion, hemiplegia, haemorrhoids, gum bleeding, and skin infections) (Broad et al, 2012).

Many tonics and supplements include derivatives from wild animals or plants. Consumption of such products is often based on the belief that they may confer some qualities of the animal or plant from which they come. The use of such products is, however, not limited to persons sharing this belief; the use of wild animals and plants is deeply enshrined in traditional medicine, which makes it all the more challenging to change consumer behaviour, even if endangered species or commodities acquired illegally are involved. Captive breeding or plantation alternatives, if available, are regarded by many consumers as inferior and less efficient than products based on wild-sourced material. Because of their presumed healing effect, the same animal and plant species used in the production of medicine, tonics, and supplements are also often consumed for food (UNODC, 2016).

 

 

 

 

Food

Many people around the world rely on wild-sourced animals and plants for food. Food consumption of wild animals covers a great range of species ranging from primates such as chimpanzees, orang-utans, and red colobus monkeys, to insects, wild herbivores and cats, and reptiles, such as snakes, crocodiles and tortoises.

In some places, wild-sourced animals feature as elements of staple diets, especially if their meat serves as a protein supply because alternatives are not available or not affordable. Traditional cooking, especially in rural areas, often uses products sourced from the wild. This may involve use of the entire animal, with meat being used for food and other parts used for medicinal purposes. The use of wildlife as food and as medicine is closely related, not least because of the persistent belief that consumption of wild products is beneficial for health.

Elsewhere, the use of wild-sourced animals and plants in cooking is not a result of necessity, but rather a reflection of status or 'fashion trends' in food consumption. This is the case, for instance, with bushmeat consumption in urban areas as recent studies from Congo-Brazzaville (Republic of Congo) and the Democratic Republic of Congo show (Chausson et al, 2019; Gluszek et al, April 2018). Even if captive-bred alternatives are readily available, some consumers prefer to buy wild-sourced products. The meat of endangered, wild-sourced animals also sometimes features as novelty food on restaurant menus, often as luxury dishes sold for high prices. There are very few popular foods, either animal or plant, that cannot be cultivated. Even rather exotic meats are commercially farmed to meet niche demand. However, wild-sourced foods may be valued precisely because they come from the wild (UNODC, 2016; Phillips, 2015).

Food consumption is also a main driver for the use of illegal fishing methods, fishing in protected areas, and over-fishing. Many sea creatures are threatened not because they are target species, but because they are bycatch.

 

 

Cosmetics and fragrance

Derivatives from wild animals and plants sometimes form the basis of cosmetics and fragrances, though this is less common today than it once was. Musk, a greasy, glandular secretion from animals, and ambergris, a waxy substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, for instance, were once used for perfumes but have since been replaced by synthetic alternatives.

Wild-sourced plants are still used widely in the cosmetics and fragrance industry, especially if cultivation is not practical or not cost-affective. Because wild plant populations are not well documented, it is difficult to determine whether the taking of plants is sustainable or whether it contributes to the extinction of species and the degradation of ecosystems. Increases in demand can lead to rapid overharvesting and when the species in question is slow to recover, as is the case with many tree species, and the impact can be severe (UNODC, 2016).

 

Curios and collections

Exotic and rare animals, animal parts, and plants are frequently sold as souvenirs, collectables, and curios and then used for decoration or ornamental purposes. This sometimes involves whole animals that are stuffed or insects or small animals that are encased in plastic to put on display in private homes or collections. Many animal parts such as ivory, turtle and mollusc shells, reptile skins, bird feathers, and coral are frequently used for these purposes; often they are carved or otherwise altered for decorative purposes. The skin of many Asian big cats, including tigers, snow leopards, clouded leopards, leopards, and Asiatic lions are used as throws or for ornamental purposes. Their skins are also sold as rugs for luxury home décor and purchased as prestigious gifts. The rarer the species, the more such items may serve as status symbols. Tourists also frequently purchase souvenirs that are made from local wildlife and may thus, wittingly or unwittingly, acquire objects made from endangered species or from illegally wild-sourced animals or plants (Broad et al, 2012; UNODC, 2016).

Some wildlife products have attained such status and scarcity that their value has become detached from any practical uses they historically had. These materials may be fashioned into jewellery, décor items, or objects of art, with the craftsmanship serving as the vehicle for the precious goods to be conspicuously displayed. The products that lend themselves well to this role tend to combine two key factors: they are traditionally recognized as precious and their supply is inherently limited. In other words, they convey prestige precisely because attaining them legally is difficult (UNODC, 2016).

 

 

 

Fashion: clothing, shoes, handbags and other accessories

Animal skins and furs, bird feathers, and fibres have been used to make or decorate clothing for centuries. Their main use today is in the fashion industry where mammal, reptile, bird, and fish products are used to make coats, jackets, pants, footwear, bags, belts, purses, and other accessories.

Many companies have substituted wild-sourced material with material stemming from captive breeding farms or with fake, synthetic fabrics and material. Expensive, high fashion items, however, continue to be produced from wild-sourced animals, especially if captive breeding is not feasible or not cost effective and if consumers willing to pay high prices specifically demand genuine, wild-sourced material. Examples include shahtoosh shawls made from Tibetan antelope, an endangered species, and more widely available products such as snake-skin accessories (Broad et al, 2012).

The use of animal fur in the fashion industry has attracted particular controversy, not least because of the capture and treatment of animals and because of the use of endangered species in the production of fur clothing. Campaigns by animal rights activists succeeded in many countries to reduce demand and sales, and some countries banned farming of animals for the purpose of fur production altogether.

Elsewhere, hunting and other forms of wild-sourcing of pelts and skins remain a source of livelihoods for people in rural areas where the source species are abundant, including areas where hunting is enshrined as a right of indigenous people. Large exports of wild-sourced skins of protected species, including bobcat, river otter, brown fur seal, and peccary skins, as well as many finished garments made of these species, have been reported which reflects continuing high demand (UNODC, 2016).

The use of animals and animal products in industrially made clothing is all the more contentious because of the volatile nature of the fashion industry, which, by its very nature, is subject to trends and changes such that material that is fashionable in one season is out of fashion in the next season. Demand can thus change suddenly and rapidly, which can make farming of animals a risky economic proposition. Wild-sourcing, on the other hand, requires less investment and can thus involve fewer financial risks. When the target species are solitary animals, wild-sourcing is often carried out informally and opportunistically by rural people. When the collectors are not directly employed by the exporters, the vulnerability of supply chains to illegal sourcing is increased (UNODC, 2016).

 

Furniture and construction

Plants and plant material are widely used in the furniture, building, and construction industries. This is not limited to timber, but also includes rattan (made from climbing palms), bamboo, and plant products such as oils, gums, dyes, and latex (Broad et al, 2012).

Tropical hardwood is particularly valued by many consumers, although it may involve endangered tree species or come from tropical rainforests or other areas that are protected and have fragile ecosystems. About two thirds of tropical hardwood comes from Southeast Asia and the Pacific; Africa and Latin America contribute one third to the international trade. Most of the demand for furniture made from tropical hardwood comes from the countries where the timber is sourced; about one third of the tropical hardwood production is traded internationally.

Illegal and excessive logging poses a particular challenge to source countries, especially developing countries with large remote forest areas where logging activities are difficult to control, where forest loss is difficult to monitor, and where it is difficult to stop illegal activities. Some countries have imposed logging restrictions, placed specific species under protection, or imposed export bans on logs. Control and enforcement of such measures is, however, expensive and lacklustre in certain places. Furthermore, in some instances permits and certificates are forged and logs are mislabelled such that illegally sourced timber is laundered through regular, legal channels (UNODC, 2016).

 

Pets and zoos

If living animals are trafficked, this is usually done for the pet trade, or, in some cases, to add them to private collections or zoos. Trafficking in living animals involves captive-bred and wild-sourced animals, some of which are protected species. Dedicated collectors frequently seek to obtain endangered species and are prepared to pay high prices for them, regardless of whether they are traded legally or illegally. The international trade of living wild-sourced animals for use as pets is dominated by reptiles, birds, and ornamental fish. It also includes invertebrate species such as scorpions and spiders, albeit less commonly (Broad et al, 2012; UNODC, 2016). The trade of living animals for use in zoos tends to involve a lower number of larger animals, often selected precisely because they are endangered and have become rare in the wild (UNODC, 2016).

The trade of tropical fish for aquaria and freshwater turtles and tortoises for terraria or other enclosures is believed to involve millions of individual animals each year. Just how much of this trade consists of animals sourced from the wild is not clear. While some consumers are willing to pay premium prices for wild-sourced animals, depending on the species, it can also be cheaper to source animals from the wild which, in turn, can stimulate further demand. Pet breeders may also seek to obtain wild-sourced animals in order to increase genetic diversity of breeding stock (UNODC, 2016).

A particular concern in the context of trafficking in living animals is animal welfare and the conditions under which animals are caught, trapped, transported, and kept. In order to maximize their catch and profits, some perpetrators employ methods that are exceptionally cruel to animals, that cause great stress to them, and that all too frequently kill off a significant share of live animal shipments (UNODC, 2016). Trafficking in living animals also extends to the collection, transportation, and sale of eggs which are often not adequately handled by those involved.

 

Ornamental plants and gardens

Just as people purchase animals for use as pets, many plants are traded internationally for use in gardens, parks, and private homes. Most of the known, reported trade in live plants for ornamental purposes is in artificially propagated sources. Much of that trade involves bulbous species, for example snowdrops Galanthus spp, crocuses Crocus spp, cyclamens Cyclamen spp, orchids, tree ferns, bromeliads, cycads, palms, and cacti.

Most of the species commonly traded and available for purchase at flower markets, nurseries, or other common retail places come from plantations or greenhouses where they are grown in large quantities. Outside of this formal trade exists an illegal and unsustainable trade in wild plants, the scale and nature of which is largely unknown. Millions of plants are sourced from the wild and often involve rare and endangered species that are sought by particular consumers. A 2018 study reports that wild harvesting for the commercial horticultural trade has been formally documented in at least ten countries, and reported in several more (Hinsley, September 2018; Broad et al, 2012).

 

Science and medical testing

The use of animals in science and medical testing constitutes a further dimension of the illicit wildlife market (Maldonado & Lafon, 2017). A large part of this market has been attributed to the demand for primates for use in biomedical and pharmaceutical research. In the United States alone, the number of primates used in research and testing rose from 57,000 in 2000 to over 70,000 in 2010 (Miller-Spiegel, 2011). Most of these animals, over 80 percent, reportedly come from captive-breeding facilities, though other research suggests that most were wild-caught in 'tropical countries', especially in Southeast Asia (Eudey, 2008).

 

Sports

Wild animals traditionally play a significant role in many sports. Historically, this often included the competitive use of animals in activities such as bear baiting, bird batting, eel pulling, monkey fighting, and tortoise racing; 'sports' that have since been abandoned or outlawed, not least because of animal cruelty. Today, the use of wild animals in sports is much more limited than it once was. Falconry, for instance, now mostly involves captive-bred birds.

Much of the focus instead is on trophy hunting, which is the subject of much controversy and fiercely debated by opponents and advocates. Trophy hunting combines gamesmanship, leisure, and the excitement of using acquired skill. Its impact on endangered species is less clear. Supporters point out that trophy hunting is legal in many countries, promotes tourism, provides support for local communities who would otherwise find little value in their wildlife, and can contribute to conservation efforts (Wiersema, 2016; von Essen et al, 2014). Others, however, argue that it is a cruel pastime for wealthy elites and contributes to the demise of endangered species.

Regional perspective: Eastern and Southern Africa   Example: Death of Cecil the Lion In 2015, the death of Cecil, a well-known black-maned lion that lived in Hwange National Park in Zimbabwe, resulted in an international outcry, following the revelation that Cecil had been killed outside the (protected) Park by a US citizen who reportedly paid over $50,000 to bow-hunt the lion as a trophy. Eight African countries, including Mozambique, Namibia, Tanzania and Zimbabwe allow the export of lion parts. The case attracted international attention and pictures of the hunter and his collaborators were circulated throughout social media and the rest of the internet. Details aggravating the public outcry were related to the hunter fitting the profile of the white, wealthy elite; that Cecil was part of a research project by Oxford’s Wildlife Conservation Research Unit; and the assumption that Cecil had been lured outside the Park, where shooting him would have been illegal. Charges against the hunter and his collaborators were eventually dropped, after Zimbabwe initially urged to extradite the “foreign poacher”. While the case spurred public discussions about trophy hunting in general, many incidents that endorsed violence against the hunter were recorded as well. For a more detailed discussion on green violence, please refer to Module 3 of the Wildlife crime University Series. (Bale, 2016 ; Actman, 2018)

 

Religion and cultural tradition, belief use

Wild-sourced animals and plans sometimes also find use in religious practices, some of which are deeply rooted in local beliefs and customs. Oud or agarwood, for instance, has a prominent role in religious observance, especially in Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist traditions (UNODC, 2016). The use of jambiya, ceremonial daggers with a short, curved blade and a medial ridge, is a tradition among men in Yemen and some parts of Saudi Arabia. The handle or hint of the jambiya is a status symbol and made from highly valuable material which, in the past, frequently involved rhino horn or ivory from elephant or walrus. Effective campaigning over the past few decades has, however, shifted the demand away from such material (Felbab-Brown, 2017; Vigne & Martin, 2001).

 

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