• E4J University Module Series: Cybercrime

• Module 12: Interpersonal Cybercrime

• Introduction and learning outcomes

• Key issues

• • Online child sexual exploitation and abuse
  • Cyberstalking and cyberharassment
  • Cyberbullying
  • Gender-based interpersonal cybercrime
  • Interpersonal cybercrime prevention
  • Conclusion
  • References

• Exercises

• Possible class structure

• Core reading

• Advanced reading

• Student assessment

• Additional teaching tools

•  

• First published in May 2019, updated in February 2020

•  

 

  This module is a resource for lecturers  

 

References

 

Publications, media articles and online resources

• ABC News Australia. (2017). Martin Shkreli suspended from Twitter after "harassing" US journalist Lauren Duca.
• Abissath, Mawutodzi Kodzo. (2018). All Rights Matter, Women's Rights Online in Ghana Matter. Government of Ghana.
• Adams, Guy. (2012). Internet's biggest troll says sorry... "to some degree." The Independent, 19 October 2012.
• Akumu, Patience. (2017). How insults and a campaign over sanitary towers landed activist in jail. The Guardian, 22 April 2017.
• Alami, Aida. (2017). She accused a Moroccan pop star of rape. Online, she was vilified. New York Times, 27 November 2017. 
• Altamura, Alessia. (2017). Online Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation: Spotlight on Female Sex Offenders. ECPAT International Journal, Online Child Sexual Exploitation: An Analysis of Emerging and Selected Issues, April (12), 26-46. 
• Amnesty International. (2017). Amnesty reveals alarming impact of online abuse against women. 
• Australian Office of the e-Safety Commissioner. (2017). Image-based Abuse National Survey: Summary report.
• Aitken, Susan, Danielle Gaskell, and Alan Hodkinson. (2018). Online Sexual Grooming: Exploratory Comparison of Themes Arising From Male Offenders' Communications with Male Victims Compared to Female Victims. Deviant Behavior, Vol. 39(9), 1170-1190.
• Bookman , Pavielle and Alesha D. Williams. (2018). A Closer Look at Teen Sexting in the Digital Age. American Bar Association, 19 March 2018. 
• Butterfield, Andrew and Ekembe Ngondi. (eds.). (2016). A Dictionary of Computer Science (7 ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Black, John, Nigar Hashimzade, and Gareth Myles. (eds.). (2017). A Dictionary of Economics (5 ed.). Oxford University Press.
• Baines, Victoria. (2008). Online Child Sexual Abuse: The Law Enforcement Response. ECPAT International. A contribution of ECPAT International to the World Congress III against the Sexual Exploitation of Children and Adolescents (Rio de Janeiro, Brazil; 25-28 November 2008).
• Beran, Tanya and Qing Li. (2005). Cyber-Harassment: A Study of a New Method for an Old Behavior. Journal of Educational Computing Research, Vol. 32, 265-277.
• Bishop, Jonathan. (2013). The effect of de-individuation of the Internet Troller on Criminal Procedure implementation: An interview with a Hater. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, No. 7(1), 28-48.
• Black, Pamela J., Mellisa Wollis, Michael Woodworth, and Jeffrey T. Hancock. (2015). A Linguistic Analysis of Grooming Strategies of Online Child Sex Offenders: Implications for our Understanding of Predatory Sexual Behavior in an Increasingly Computer-Mediated World. Child Abuse and Neglect 44, 140-149.
• Brail, Stephanie. (1994). Take back the net! On the Issues (Winter), 40-42.
• Calvete, Esther, Izaskun Orue, Ana Estevez, Lourdes Villardon, and Patricia Padilla. (2010). Cyberbullying in adolescents: modalities and aggressors' profile. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 26(5), 1128-1135.
• Cassim, Fawzia. (2013). Formulating Adequate Legislation to Address Cyber-Bullying: Has the Law Kept Pace with Advancing Technology. South African Journal of Criminal Justice, Vol. 26(1), 1-120.
• Centre for Internet & Society. (2018). Revenge Porn Laws Across the World.
• Childnet.  
• Clarke-Billings, Lucy. (2016). Teenage girls are "roasting" young boys in U.K. cyberbullying craze. Newsweek, 25 July 2016.
• Cohen, Lawrence E., and Mark Felson (1979). Social change and crime rate trends: A routine activity approach. American Sociological Review, Vol. 44, 588-608.
• Coonan, Clifford. (2013). Chinese schoolboy, 15, exposed as Egypt's ancient temple graffiti vandal. The Independent, 28 May 2013.
• Cooper, Karol, Ethel Quayle, Linda Jonsson, and Carl Goren Svedin. (2016). Adolescents and self-taken sexual images: A review of the literature. Computers in Human Behaviour, Vol. 55, 706-716.
• DARPA. (n.d.). Memex (Domain-Specific Search) .
• Davis, Joshua. (2011). The Persecution of Daniel Lee. Sandford Alumni Magazine, July/August 2011.
• Davis, Joshua. (2012). The Stalking of Korean Hip Hop Superstar Daniel Lee. New York Times, 24 April 2012.
• Demetriou, Christina and Andrew Silke. (2003). A criminological internet 'sting': Experimental evidence of illegal and deviant visits to a website trap. British Journal of Criminology, Vol. 43(1), 213-222.
• Ditch the Label. 
• Drouin, Michelle and Tobin, Elizabeth. (2014). Unwanted but consensual sexting among young adults. Computers in Human Behavior, Vol. 31, 412-418.
• Duggan, Maeve, Amanda Lenhart, Cliff Lampe, and Nicole B. Ellison. (2015). Parents and Social Media: Concerns about children, media and technology use. Pew Research Center.
• ECPAT International. (2016). Briefing Paper Emerging Global Threats Related to the Online Sexual Exploitation of Children.
• ECPAT International. (2018). Trends in Online Child Sexual abuse material. Bangkok: ECPAT International (April 2018).
• Electronic Frontier Foundation. (n.d.). The Playpen Cases: Frequently Asked Questions.
• Elliott, Ian A. (2017). A Self-Regulation Model of Sexual Grooming. Trauma, Violence, & Abuse, Vol. 18 (1), p. 83-97. (1-15).
• European Banking Authority (2014). EBA Opinion on virtual currencies.
• European Parliament Policy Department for Citizens' Rights and Constitutional Affairs (2016). Cyberbullying among young people.
• Europol (2018). Internet Organised Crime Threat Assessment (IOCTA) 2018.
• Fanti, Kostas A., Andreas G. Demetriou, and Veronica V. Hawa. (2012). A longitudinal study of cyberbullying: Examining risk and protective factors. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 9(2), 168-181.
• Farokhmanesh, Megan. Deepfakes are disappearing from parts of the web, but they are not going away. The Verge, 9 February 2018.
• Finklea, Kristin. (2017). Law Enforcement Using and Disclosing Technology Vulnerabilities Specialist in Domestic Security. Congressional Research Service, R44827.
• Flynn, Asher and Henry, Nicola. (Forthcoming, 2018). Image-Based Sexual Abuse. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Criminology and Criminal Justice. Oxford University Press.
• Frangež, Danijela, Anton Toni Klančnik, Mojca Žagar Karer, Bj?rn-Erik Ludvigsen, Jarosław Kończyk, Fernando Ruiz Perez, Mikko Veijalainen, and Maurine Lewin. (2015). The Importance of Terminology Related to Child Sexual Exploitation. Journal of Criminal Investigation and Criminology, Vol. 66(4), 291-299.
• Global Kids Online. (2016). Executive summary: Research synthesis 2015-2016 (November 2016). 
• Henry, Nicola, Flynn, Asher and Powell, Anastasia. (2018). Policing Image-based Sexual Abuse: Stakeholder Perspectives. Police Practice and Research: An International Journal,Vol. 19(6), 565-581.
• Henry, Nicola and Anastasia Powell. (2014). The Darker Side of the Virtual World: Towards a Digital sexual ethics. In Preventing Sexual violence: Interdisciplinary Approaches to Overcoming a Rape Culture, eds. Nicola Henry, and Anastasia Powell, 84-104. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan.
• Henry, Nicola and Anastasia Powell. (2017). Sexual Violence and Harassment in the Digital Era. In Antje Deckert and Rick Sarre (eds.). The Palgrave Handbook of Australian and New Zealand Criminology, Crime and Justice. Palgrave Macmillan.
• Henry, Nicola, Powell, Anastasia and Flynn, Asher. (2017). Not just "revenge pornography": Australians' experiences of image-based abuse: A summary report.
• Henry, Nicola, Powell, Anastasia and Flynn, Asher. (2018). AI can now create fake porn, making revenge porn even more complicated. The Conversation, 1 March. 
• Holpuch, Amanda. (2012). Reddit user Violentacrez fired from job after Gawker exposé. The Guardian, 16 October 2012. 
• Hunt, Elle. (2017). Martin Shkreli suspended from Twitter for alleged harassment of Lauren Duca. The Guardian, 8 January 2017. 
• Interagency Working Group. (2016). Terminology Guidelines for the Protection of Children from Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse. ECPAT International and ECPAT Luxembourg (Luxembourg, 28 January 2016). 
• International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children. (2018). Child Sexual Abuse Material: Model Legislation & Global Review. Ninth Edition. 
• International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children. (2016). Child Pornography: Model Legislation & Global Review . Eighth Edition. 
• International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children. (2017). Online Grooming of Children for Sexual Purposes: Model Legislation & Global Review . First Edition. 
• International Centre for Missing & Exploited Children (ICMEC) and The United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF). (2016). Online Child Sexual Abuse and Exploitation.  
• Internet Watch Foundation. (2018). Trends in Online Child Sexual Exploitation: Examining the Distribution of Captures of Live-streamed Child Sexual Abuse.  
• INTERPOL. (2017a). Global operation targets child sexual abuse material exchanged via messaging apps. 
• INTERPOL. (2017b). Japan's child sex abuse network ringleader identified via Interpol is jailed. 
• Kalim, Alexander. (2013). Addressing the Gap in International Instruments Governing Internet Child Pornography. CommLaw Conspectus: Journal of Communications law and Technology Policy, Vol. 21(2), 428-452.
• Kent, Spencer. (2017). #Roastme: New form of cyberbullying parents should know about.  
• Krischer, Hayley. (2017). It's 10 P.M. do you know what apps your children are using? New York Times, 6 September 2017. 
• Kingkade. (2014). Porn Star Belle Knox: Every Day Is "Like A Nightmare." Huffington Post, 20 March 2014.
• Klettke Bianca, Hallford David and Mellor David. (2015). Sexting prevalence and correlates: A systematic literature review. Clinical Psychology Review,Vol. 34(1), 44-53.
• Kowalski, Robin M. and Susan P. Limber. (2007). Electronic bullying among middle school students. Journal of Adolescent Health, Vol. 41(6), S22-S30
• Kohm, Amelia. (2015). Childhood bullying and social dilemmas. Aggressive Behavior, Vol. 41(2), 97-108.
•  Lanning, Keith. (2010). Child Molesters: A Behavioral Analysis for Professional Investigating the Sexual Exploitation of Children. National Centre for Missing and Exploited Children (5th ed.).
• Lanzarote Committee. (2015). Opinion on Article 23 of the Lanzarote Committee and its Explanatory Note.
• Laville, Sandra. (2007). Undercover Police Smash Paedophile Ring Posting Live Abuse Online. The Guardian, 18 June 2007.
• Lenhart Amanda, Ybarra Michele and Price-Feeney Myeshia. (2016). Online harassment, digital abuse and cyberstalking in America.
• Li, Qing. (2008). A cross-cultural comparison of adolescents' experience related to cyberbullying. Educational Research, Vol. 50(3), 223-234.
• Li, Qing. (2006). Cyberbullying in schools: a research of gender differences. School Psychology International, Vol. 27(2), 157-170.
• Livingstone Sonia, Leslie Haddon, Anke Gorzig, and Kjartan Olafsson. (2011). Risks and safety on the Internet: The perspective of European children. London School of Economics, London: EU Kids Online.
• Lounsbury Kaitlin, Mitchell, Kimberley and Finkelhor David. (2011). The true prevalence of 'sexting'. Crimes Against Children Research Centre, University of New Hampshire.
• Lyons, Kate, Tom Phillips, Shaun Walker, Jon Henley, Paul Farrell, and Megan Carpentier. (2016). Online abuse: How different countries deal with it. The Guardian, 12 April 2016. 
• Maras, Marie-Helen. (2014). Computer Forensics: Cybercriminals, Laws and Evidence, Secondedition. Jones and Bartlett.
• Maras, Marie-Helen. (2016). Cybercriminology. University Press.
• Maras, Marie-Helen. (2015). Unprotected Speech Communicated via Social Media: What Amounts to a True Threat? Journal of Internet Law, Vol. 19(3), 3-9.
• Maras, Marie-Helen, and Alex Alexandrou. (2018). Determining Authenticity of Video Evidence in the Age of Artificial Intelligence and in the Wake of Deepfake Videos. International Journal of Evidence and Proof, available online 28 October 2018. https://doi.org/10.1177/1365712718807226.
• Marcum, Catherine D., Geroge E. Higgins, and Melissa L. Ricketts. (2014). Juveniles and Cyber Stalking in the United States: An Analysis of Theoretical Predictors of Patterns of Online Perpetration. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, No. 8(1), 47-56.
• Matsui, Shigenori. (2015). The criminalization of revenge porn in Japan. Washington International Law Journal Association, Vol. 1, 289-218.
• McGlynn, Clare and Rackley, Erika (2017). Image-based sexual abuse . Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 37(3), 534-561.
• McGlynn, Clare, Rackley, Erika, and Houghton, Ruth. (2017). Beyond 'Revenge Porn': The Continuum of Image-Based Sexual Abuse. Feminist Legal Studies, Vol. 25, 25-46.
• Morris, Steven. (2011). Internet troll jailed after mocking deaths of teenagers. The Guardian, 13 September 2011. 
• Moriarty, Laura J. and Kimberly Freiberger. (2008). Cyberstalking: Utilizing Newspaper Accounts to Establish Victimization Patterns. Victims & Offenders, Vol. 3(2-3), 131-141.
• Navarro, Jordana N. and Jana L. Jasinski. (2012). Going Cyber: Using Routine Activities Theory to Predict Cyberbullying Experiences. Sociological Spectrum, Vol. 32(1), 81-94.
• Navarro, Jordana N. and Jana L. Jasinski. (2013). Why Girls? Using Routine Activities Theory to Predict Cyberbullying Experiences Between Girls and Boys. Women & Criminal Justice, Vol. 23(4), 286-303.
• Newton, Paula. (2013). Canadian teen commits suicide after alleged rape, bullying. CNN, 10 April 2013. 
• Mooney, Jamie-Lee and Suzanne Ost. (2013). Group Localised Grooming: What Is It and What Challenges Does It Pose for Society and Law? Child and Family Law Quarterly,Vol. 25(4), 1-20.
• Nouwen, Ivonne. (2017). Virtual Currency Uses for Child Sex Offending Online. ECPAT International Journal, Online Child Sexual Exploitation: An Analysis of Emerging and Selected Issues, April (12), 4-13. 
• O'Brien, Kristy. (2018). Cyber-bullying campaign launched after suicide of Akubra face Amy 'Dolly' Everett. ABC Australian News, 10 January 2018. 
• O'Connell, Rachel. 2003.  A Typology of Cyber Sexploitation and Online Grooming Practices. Preston, England: University of Central Lancashire. 
• Patchin, Justin. W. and Sameer Hinduja. (2006). Bullies Move Beyond the Schoolyard: A Preliminary Look at Cyberbullying. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, Vol. 4(2), 148-169.
• O'Connor, Kimberly, Drouin, Michelle, Yergens, Nicholas, and Newsham, Genni. (2017). Sexting Legislation in the United States and Abroad: A Call for Uniformity. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, Vol. 11(2), 218-245.
• Powell, Anastasia, Henry, Nicola and Flynn, Asher. (2018) Image-based Sexual Abuse. In Walter DeKeseredy and Molly Dragiewicz (eds.) Handbook of Critical Criminology (Chapter 25). New York: Routledge.
• Promchertchoo, Pichayada. (2018a). Live streaming of child sex abuse spreads in the Philippines. Channel NewsAsia, 28 October 2018. 
• Promchertchoo, Pichayada. (2018b). "We didn't have much to eat": Poverty pushes some kids towards paid sex abuse in the Philippines. Channel NewsAsia, 30 October 2018.
• Quarmby, Katharine. (2014). How the Law Is Standing Up to Cyberstalking. Newsweek, 13 August 2014. 
• Rackley, Erika and McGlynn, Clare. (2014). The law must focus on consent when it tackles revenge porn. The Conversation. 23 July 2014.
• Rainie, Lee. (2008). Online child safety and literacy. Pew Research Centre. 
• Rawlinson, Kevin. (2018) Labour MP calls for end to online anonymity after 600 rape threats. The Guardian (UK) 12 June 2018.
• New York State Office of the Attorney General. (2012). A.G. Schneiderman's "Operation: Game Over" Purges Thousands of Sex Offenders From Online Video Game Networks.
• Reuters. (2017). Italy passes law to fight cyber bullying. 17 May 2017. 
• Reuters. (2013). Two Swedish teens convicted for Instagram insults. 
• Reyns, Bradford, Billy Henson and Bonnie S. Fisher. (2011). Being pursued online. Applying Cyberlifestyle-Routine activities theory to cyberstalking victimization. Criminal Justice and Behavior, Vol. 38(11), 1149-1169.
• Ringrose, Jessica and Renold, E. (2012). Slut-shaming, girl power and 'sexualisation': Thinking through the politics of the international SlutWalks with teen girls. Gender and Education, Vol.24(3), 333-343.
• Secretariat of the Lanzarote Committee. (2018). Information Note: The Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse (20 June 2018). 
• Slonje, Robert, Peter K. Smith, and Ann Frisen. (2012). Processes of cyberbullying, and feelings of remorse by bullies: A pilot study. European Journal of Developmental Psychology, Vol. 9(2), 84.
• Smith, Peter K. (2012). Cyberbullying and cyber aggression. In S.R. Jimerson, A.B. Nickerson, M.J. Mayer, and M.J. Furlong. (eds). Handbook of school violence and school safety: International research and practice (pp. 93-103). Routledge.
• Smith, Peter K., Georges Steffen, and Ruth Sittichai. (2013). The nature of cyberbullying and an international network. In Peter K. Smith and Georges Steffen, eds. Severability Through The New Media: Findings From An International Network. Psychology Press.
• Smith, Peter K., Jess Mahdavi, Manuel Carvalho, Sonja Fisher, Shanette Russell and Neil Tippett. (2008). Cyberbullying: the nature and impact in secondary school pupils. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, Vol. 49(4), 376-385.
• Soukup, Charles. (1999). The gendered interactional patterns of computer-mediated chatrooms: A critical ethnographic study. Information Society, Vol. 15(3), 169-176.
• Southworth, Cindy and Tucker, Sarah. (2007) Technology, stalking and domestic violence victims. Mississippi Law Journal, Vol. 76, 667-676.
• Take Back the Tech. 
• Terre des Hommes. (n.d.). Sweetie: How to Stop Webcam Child Sex Tourism.  
• Terre des Hommes. (2018). The Dark Side of the Internet for Children: Online Child Sexual Exploitation in Kenya - A Rapid Assessment Report.  
• Thorn. (n.d.). Sharing hashes across industry.  
• UN Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (1999). Sexually Abused and Sexually Exploited Children and Youth in South Asia: A Qualitative Assessment of their Health Needs and Available Services.  
• UNODC. (2015). Study on the Effects of New Information Technologies on the Abuse and Exploitation of Children.
• U.S. Department of Justice. (2012). Third Dreamboard Member Sentenced to Life in Prison for Participating in International Criminal network Organized to Sexually Exploit Children.  
• Vakhitova, Zarina I. and Danielle M. Reynald. (2014). Australian Internet Users and Guardianship against Cyber Abuse. International Journal of Cyber Criminology, Vol. 8(2), 156-171.
• Varrella, Andrea. (2017). Live Streaming of Child Sexual Abuse: Background, Legislative Frameworks and the Experience of the Philippines. ECPAT International Journal, Online Child Sexual Exploitation: An Analysis of Emerging and Selected Issues, April (12), 47-58.
• Walker, Shelley, Sanci, Lena and Temple-Smith Meredith. (2013). Sexting: Young women's and men's views on its nature and origins. Journal of Adolescent Health,  Vol. 52, 697-701.
• Webster, Stephen, Julia Davidson and Antonia Bifulco, Eds. Online offending behavior and child victimization: New findings and policy. Palgrave-Macmillan.
• Williford, Anne, Lawrence Christian Elledge, Aaron J. Boulton, Kathryn J. DePaolis, Todd D. Little, and Christina Salmivalli. (2013). Effects of the KiVa Antibullying Program on Cyberbullying and Cybervictimization Frequency Among Finnish Youth. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, Vol. 42(6), 820-833.
• Winters, Georgia M. and Elizabeth L. Jeglic. (2017). Stages of Sexual Grooming: Recognizing Potentially Predatory Behaviors of Child Molesters. Deviant Behavior, Vol. 38(6), 724-733.
• Working to Halt Online Abuse. (2012). Online Harassment/Cyberstalking Statistics: Cumulative statistics for the years 2000-2011.  

 

Cases

• Alkaya v Turkey, ECHR (App no. 42811/06), 9 October 2012.
• Flinkkilä and others v. Finland, ECHR (App no. 25576/04), 6 April 2010.
• Kurier Zeitungsverlag und Druckerei GmbH v. Austria, ECHR 49 (App no. 3401/07) [2012].
• R v. Costi, EWCA Crim 3152 [2006].
• Saaristo and Others v. Finland, ECHR (App no. 184/06), 12 October 2010.
• The Queen vs. Ian Watkins and others, Case No: 62CA1726112 (18 December 2013).

 

National and international legislation

• African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child of 1990.
• Australia (New South Wales). Crimes (Domestic and Personal Violence) Act of 2007.
• Australia (South Australia). Criminal Law Consolidation Act of 1935.
• Australia (Victoria). Crimes Act of 1958.
• Australia. Criminal Code 1995.
• Brazil. Criminal Code of 1940.
• Canada. Protecting Canadians from Online Crime Act of 2014.
• Council of Europe. Convention on the Protection of Children Against Sexual Exploitation and Abuse of 2007.
• European Union. Directive 2011/92/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 December 2011 on combating the sexual abuse and sexual exploitation of children and child pornography, which replaced Council Framework Decision 2004/68/JHA of 22 December 2003 on Combating the Sexual Exploitation of Children, including Child Pornography.
• Israel. Prevention of Sexual Harassment Law, 5758-1998.
• Italy. Law No. 71 of 29 May 2017.
• Japan. Act on Prevention of Victimization, Resulting from Provision of Private Sexual Image, Law No. 126 of 2014.
• Japan. Act on the Promotion of Preventive Measures for Bullying of 2013.
• New Zealand. Harmful Digital Communications Act of 2015.
• Nigeria. Cybercrimes (Prohibition, Prevention, Etc) Act of 2015.
• Pakistan. Prevention of Electronic Crimes Ordinance of 2007.
• Philippines. Anti-Child Pornography Act of 2009.
• Philippines. Anti-Photo and Video Voyeurism Act of 2009.
• Singapore. Protection from Harassment Act of 2014.
• Sweden. Education Act of 2010 (Law 2010: 800 Education Act).
• Uganda. Computer Misuse Act of 2011.
• United Kingdom (England and Wales). Criminal Justice and Court Act of 2015.
• United Kingdom (Northern Ireland). Justice Act of 2016.
• United Kingdom (Scotland). Abusive Behaviour and Sexual Harm Act of 2016.
• United Kingdom. Children's Act of 1989.
• United Kingdom. Malicious Communications Act of 1988.
• United Kingdom. Protection from Harassment Act of 1997.
• United Nations. Convention on the Rights of a Child of 1989.
• United Nations. Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child on the sale of children, child prostitution and child pornography of 2000.
• United States. Digital Millennium Copyright Act of 1998.

 

Next:  Exercises

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